LESSON 4  

Fitness Activities: Essential Concepts of Fitness Training

Objectives  

After acquiring knowledge presented in Lesson 4, you should be able to perform the following task: 

v    Identify five principles of training and explain how they influence cardio respiratory endurance training. 

v   Identify five principles of training and explain how they influence strength training.

v    Identify five principles of training and explain how they influence flexibility training.

v   Identify five principles of training and explain how they influence skill development.

Introduction

This lesson focuses on the use of the principles of training (the principles of readiness, adaptation, specificity,  progressive overload, and regression), to design fitness training  programs that improve four components of fitness: cardio respiratory endurance, strength, flexibility, and body fat composition.  When the principles of readiness, adaptation, specificity, progressive overload, and regression are understood and applied for the design of  fitness training programs, maintenance and improvements in the components of fitness will follow.

Although it is appropriate to discuss each component of fitness separately, they are interrelated, and all successful fitness training programs must include consideration of the components of fitness (flexibility, cardio respiratory endurance, and strength) for each training period.  For instance, in a training session that emphasizes cardio respiratory training both, flexibility and strength exercises must also be included.  This approach to planning should always be applied to the three essential components of a training period:
1) Warm-up, 2) Workout, and 3) Cool-down. 

The warm-up is used to gradually increase the heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen consumption, dilation of blood vessels, elasticity of the active muscles and the heat produced by active muscle groups.  The  components of the warm-up are graduated aerobic activity and flexibility.  Examples of  appropriate aerobic activities are jogging or slow tempo rhythmic calisthenics.  Flexibility exercises should be specific to the biomechanical nature of the primary conditioning activity.  For instance, calf, quadriceps, and Achilles stretching should precede  running.  

The workout is used to emphasize conditioning of the primary fitness component (flexibility, cardio respiratory endurance, strength, or body fat composition).  There are four criteria that must be addressed in the workout or conditioning phase of a training period: mode of exercise, frequency of exercise session, duration of exercise session, and intensity of exercise session.  Other components of fitness may be included in the workout to support conditioning.

Once a medical screening (PAR-Q or physician approval) assessment of the components of fitness, and goal setting have been completed, the mode of exercise (running, resistance training, stretching, etc.) must be identified along with the level of training, which must be in accord with the levels of readiness and outcomes desired.  When this is done, the frequency of exercise sessions must be established and the duration and intensity of specific exercises must be planned that can cause the physiological adaptations in the body needed to achieve the goals set.  An exercise program form should reflect each of these steps, and may include the following items: 1) Statement about the health of participants, which includes age, height, weight, blood pressure,  resting heart rate, target heart rate zone, and percentage of body fat, 2) Results of fitness tests for cardio respiratory endurance (VO₂, max), 3) Results of fitness tests for  flexibility (ROM in joints for the sport of interest), 4) Results of fitness tests for strength (Muscular strength,  muscular endurance, and muscular power), and 5) The results of any other tests that may be beneficial to the planning process.

The cool-down is included in each training session to slowly decrease the heart rate and overall metabolism, both of which are always elevated during the workout or conditioning phase of  training.  Low level aerobic exercise and stretching are recommended for the cool-down.  Jogging and walking are good examples of low level aerobics.  The cool-down helps prevent the sudden pooling of blood in the veins and ensures adequate circulation to the skeletal muscles, heart, and brain.  The cool-down may prevent any tendency toward post exercise fainting and dizziness.  The length of the cool-down phase should be proportional to intensity and length of the conditioning phase.

The importance of all three phases of a training session (Warm-up, workout, and cool-down) must be acknowledged, if a successful training program is to be accomplished.  Conditioning for each component of fitness (flexibility, cardio respiratory endurance, and strength) should be planned with the three phases of a training period.

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Proper Mechanics and Progressions for Achieving Best Results

Although proper mechanics or good technique is important to every aspect of fitness training, it is of particular importance in resistance training.  One's ability to perform efficiently and for maximum benefit is founded in the techniques that are mastered as well as in conditioning.  For instance, good technique is essential for achieving maximum speed, and without it, a powerful serve cannot be developed.  But, in resistance training designed to improve strength, not only can good technique improve performance, it can also decrease the risk of injury.

When performed correctly, resistance training with free weights, requires that the weight bar be kept close to the body.  Keeping the bar close to the body decreases the length of the distance between the point of support (fulcrum) and the resistance force (the weight).  Keeping the weight close to the body will allow a lifter to use more weight and perform an exercise more quickly,  But more importantly, it will reduce the risk of injury.  The problem that must be addressed here is that as the distance between the point of support increases, the resistance force increases.  This means that  the force at the point of support increases without an increase in weight, as the bar moves farther from the point of support.  This effect is extremely dangerous for exercises that place stress on the muscles and joints of the back.

It is important to note that the technique explained above  is purely mechanical and supports the importance of learning proper mechanics for achieving best results.  In other words, exercises should not  be done just to improve fitness, they should be done in special ways, which may call for supervision by an expert, to increase the likelihood of achieving  maximum benefits and decreasing the risk of injury.  Understanding the importance of good technique is critical to one's ability to design safe and effective resistance training programs. Therefore, exercise techniques should be studied very carefully.

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Stretching Range of Motion In the Joints

Flexibility is a component of fitness that is a critical factor in the achievement of peak physical performance.  Although it is often overlooked by some runners, weight lifters, and sports participants, experts believe that there are many benefits that support the need for flexibility exercises.  Some of the benefits are as follows: 1) increased physical efficiency and performance, 2) decreased risk of injury, 3) increased blood supply and nutrients to joint structures, 4) increased neuromuscular coordination, 5) improved muscular balance, 6) reduced stress, and enhanced enjoyment.  However, as important as flexibility appears to be, it offers disadvantages for physical activity, if over training is not prevented.  Too much flexibility can increase the risk of injury and decrease the efficiency of performance.

There are three techniques for stretching that are commonly practiced: static stretching, ballistic stretching, and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF).  Therefore, a fitness training program may include one, a combination of, or all three of these stretching procedures.  As in the design of an exercise routine for cardio respiratory endurance there are basic requirements that must be established to maintain or improve range of motion in joints (ROM).

A flexibility exercise program must reflect knowledge of the following items: 1) Statement about the health of participants, which includes age, height, weight, blood pressure,  resting heart rate, target heart rate zone, and percentage of body fat, 2) Results of fitness tests for  flexibility (ROM in joints suited to the sport of interest), 3) Results of fitness tests for strength (Muscular strength,  muscular endurance, and muscular power),  4) Other tests that may be important to the development of flexibility, and 5) the particular stretching exercises that will be used to achieve desired goals.

Flexibility exercises may be included in the warm-up and cool-down phases of a training session.  However, this is not to be confused with a conditioning program for flexibility improvement, which will be included in the workout component of a training period.  Also, after stretching has been identified as the mode of exercise to be conditioned, the frequency of exercise sessions, the duration of exercise session, the intensity (static, ballistic, or PNF) of each exercise, and duration of exercise sessions must be planned.

Good technique is important for the proper execution of stretching exercises.  Muscles, tendons, and ligaments may be injured, if proper techniques are not employed, which may require supervision by an expert.  As with all components of fitness, if stretching is discontinued for long periods of time, the principle of regression will take affect; so, flexibility will be lost.

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Increasing Maximum Oxygen Consumption

Cardio respiratory endurance is proclaimed to be the centerpiece of physical fitness and cardiovascular health.  For health and sports training applications, the terms cardio respiratory fitness and endurance, cardiovascular fitness, and aerobic endurance are synonymous.  Cardio respiratory fitness best describes the health and function of the heart, lungs, blood vessels, blood, and muscle fibers.  It is related to cardio respiratory endurance, which is the ability to participate in physical activity for prolonged periods.  Cardio respiratory fitness also describes the capacity of the lungs to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide  with the blood.  Thus, one of the functions of the circulatory system is to transport blood and nutrients to metabolically active muscle tissues for sustained periods of work without undue fatigue.

The capability of a person to remain active for long periods of time is determined by two functions of the cardio respiratory system: cardiac output (which includes heart rate and ejection fraction) and oxygen extraction.  These two functions control how much oxygen reaches the cellular level, and represents a person's  capacity to consume oxygen.  This capacity is called maximal oxygen consumption (VO₂).  Measured directly with a stress test using a cycle or treadmill, it is the most valid means of determining a person's maximal aerobic power. 

Based on the time a person stays on the bicycle ergometer or treadmill, the maximal oxygen consumption can be estimated and converted to a MET equivalent.  A MET is a multiple of resting oxygen consumption.  One MET equals a person's oxygen uptake at rest, which is equal to approximately 3.5 milliliters of oxygen per kilogram of body weight per minute (3.5 ml/kg/min).  METS may also be used to manage the intensity of exercise.  For instance, if a person has a functional capacity of 10 METS, he or she may begin their training intensity at 60 percent of their maximal oxygen consumption or functional capacity, which is .6 times 10 or 6 METS. 

Maximal oxygen consumption can also be estimated from the heart rate response to submaximal workload.  For example, three popular tests for measuring heart rate response are the 3 minute step test, the 1 mile walk test, and the 1.5 mile walk/run test.  Depending on which submaximal test is administered, the submaximal exercise test provides a reasonable accurate estimation of maximal oxygen uptake (+ or - 10 to 20 percent).  In order for a test to be submaximal, the intensity should not exceed 85 percent of heart rate reserve.

The most popular way to improve cardio respiratory endurance is with aerobic exercise, exercising long periods of time with a level of intensity that causes the heart rate to increase to a  range of 60 percent to 90 percent of the maximal heart rate.  This range is equivalent to 50 percent to 85 percent of heart rate reserve (Heart rate reserve equals maximum heart rate minus age minus resting heart rate = 220 - Age - RPR), which is used in the Karvonen formula.  This level of intensity  is believed to be for physiological purposes the best way to achieve cardio respiratory training benefits.  For instance, a person may begin with an intensity of 50 percent of heart rate reserve and gradually increase the intensity to 85 percent.  This approach to training cardio respiratory endurance is exemplifies the principle of readiness, specificity, and progressive overload.  As explained in lesson  5, the Borg Scale, perceived rate of exertion, may also be used to monitor exercise intensity.

Cardio respiratory endurance exercise programs must reflect knowledge of the following items: 1) Statement about the health of participants, which includes age, height, weight, blood pressure,  resting heart rate, target heart rate zone, and percentage of body fat, 2) Results of fitness tests for  flexibility (ROM in joints suited to the aerobic activities of interest), 3) Results of fitness tests for muscular endurance,  4) Other tests that may be important to the development of cardio respiratory endurance, and 5) the selection of specific aerobic activities that will be used to achieve desired cardio respiratory endurance goals. 

Whether a person's VO₂ max is derived directly by a graded exercise test or indirectly by one of the other methods,  it represents a person's  maximum capacity to consume oxygen, which depends on  cardiac output and oxygen extraction, and it is reported as milliliters of  Oxygen per minute (ml of O /min) and milliliters of Oxygen per kilogram of body weight per minute ml/kg/min.  Improving this component of fitness by monitoring the intensity of aerobic exercises, may be less problematical and more accurate for determining effective aerobic exercise intensity if Borg's rate or perceived exertion is utilized (Table 4.2). 

Table 4.2
VO2 max Equivolent for Percent Max Heart Rate