1. Highly diverse and large--a subcontinent rather than a "national" area
2. Northern mountains
   1.  Provide some isolation, but doesn't cut off everyone
      1. traders
      2. pilgrims
      3. armies

1. very old--flourished between 3300-1900 BC
2. Writing remains undeciphered -- much still unknown
3. City based culture spread out over area larger than modern Pakistan  - Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa the most important
4. Develops along the Indus river, fed from the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush
5. Nature of society
   1. highly conservative - little change over time
   2. all cities laid out in similar patterns
   3. art, weights and measures, money, architecture, all highly uniform across space and time
   4. Resistant to outside influences
   5. This suggests a central government, probably by a theocracy
6. Cites centered on large citadels, probably inhabited by priest-nobles
   1. complex system of drainage and sewers
   2. city laid out along careful plan
      1. Mohenjo-Daro and Harrap, the largest cities, had walls, large granaries
      2. probably served as political centers
   3. divided into compounds
   4. Most people lived in one room tenements
   5. houses of the wealthy centered around courtyard, blank wall to the outside
7. Economy
   • 1. agriculture - wheat, barley, peas, cotton, rice, lentils
   • 2. Extensive long-distance trade
     • a. traded as far as China, South-East Asia
     • b. trade goods included ivory, gems, bronze
8. Little known about religion
   1. some evidence of precursors to Hinduism
      1. pantheon of deities, many nature related
      2. featured what may be a mother goddess and a horned fertility god
   2. Strong evidence of importance of bull, fertility
   3. Evidence for meditation and exercise as part of religion
9. Collapse seems to have been brought by environmental changes after 1900 BC
   1. deforestation by the Harappans led to soil erosion, desertification
   2. this resulted in a decline in agricultural production
   3. Cities declined after 1900 BC, largely gone by 1500 BC

III. Aryan "Invasion"

1. Migration from the north, coming from area around Caspian and Black Seas - begins c. 1500BC
2. Not a distinct ethnic group, but various groups united by family of languages, nomadic warrior culture
   • 1. Languages part of the Indo-European family, which includes most European languages
   • 2. Thus connected to migrants who moved into Persia (Iran) and Europe around the same time
3. Moves into area around time of Harappan collapse
4. Over next 500 years, Aryans would establish dominance over much of India. particularly in the north
   1. settle along northern Indus initially
   2. establish communities along the Ganges after 1000 BC

IV. Mixing cultures

1. A. Aryans nomadic, not as urbanized as the Dravidans (non-Aryans who were probably descendents of Harappans)
   • 1. probably traveled as small bands
   • 2. constantly on the move for new grazing lands for cattle
   • 3. Culture, history known to us primarily though the Vedas
2. B. Yet extremely good at fighting, able to dominate India
   • 1. Horses, chariots, copper-bronze weapons
   • 2. gave them military advantage over Dravidians
3. C. Therefore a mingling of cultures
   • 1. Aryan warrior culture held agricultural, darker-skinned Dravidians (who they also called "Dasas") in contempt
   • 2. Aryans attempted to ban miscegenation
   • 2. Dravidians however contributed some of their own cultural norms to Aryans, development of Hindu culture
   • 3. yet the Aryans were in control and wanted to keep distance between groups
4. D. Aryan Religion
   • 1. Vedas - holy texts outlining history of Aryans and their gods
     • a. oldest of the Vedas date to between 1400 and 900 BC; not written down until centuries later
     • b. describing fighting between Aryans, and against indigenous people
     • c. main god was Indra, god of battle and lightning
   • 2. Ritual sacrifice central focus
   • 3. Many obvious precursors to Hinduism, but lacked introspection of Hinduism, and key concepts like reincarnation
   • 4. Sacrifices, knowledge of Vedas tightly controlled by Brahmins (priests)
5. E. Rise of the Brahmans
   • 1. Early Aryan religion dominated by warrior chieftains who claimed divine descent
   • 2. The Brahmans, or priests, served as chief advisors to these local kings
   • 3. Through control of religious ritual they controlled kingly succession
   • 4. Development of Brahmanism
     • a. Aryan religion changed as Brahman influence increased
     • b. By 700s BC, it was believed that gods had to do what they were asked if proper sacrifice was given
     • c. through exclusive knowledge of ritual and sacrifice, controlled access to gods and their favors

• A. Caste System of society develops
  • 1. Varnas (castes) originally based on differences of skin color (Indian word actually means color)
  • 2. warrior class of Aryans held dark-skinned Dasas in contempt
  • 3. Eventually became based on occupation, social status, and reincarnation
• B. Caste system levels
  • 1. Brahmans - priests
  • 2. Kshatriya - warriors
  • 3. Vaisya - merchants
  • 4. Sudras - farmers, artisans, laborers
  • 5. Pariahs or untouchables (5-7% of population); originally slaves, then outcasts
    • a. had to bang two sticks to say they were coming
    • b. cold not eat with others (as in other castes)
    • c. but also could not be seen with others
    • d. did the "dirtiest" work: undertaking, tanning, sewer cleaning
  • 6. top three were Aryan only, in the beginning, but color now is less clear as a discriminating factor
  • 7. Caste system not individual but by family clan, or jati, with economic jobs and responsibilities
  • 8. still rather strong in the twentieth century
• C. Occupation, marriage, food, and social code were all based on this idea
• D. Reincarnation Dharma (as moral code) and Karma (as fate)
  • 1. Samsara - a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth
  • 2. each caste had its own moral code of what was acceptable or not
  • 3. each person in each caste had a reason to be there based on sins of a past life
  • 4. way to get reincarnated to a better caste was to act correctly in your present position (dharma)
  • 5. each person in each caste had a reason to be there based on sins of a past life
  • 6. way to link present with past and future, create responsibility, and keep castes in their places
  • 7. thus the untouchables had a reason to be that way
• E. Also, importance of village life