Modernism and Positivism - From Ordem and Progresso to the Porfiriato

I. Major Social and Economic Trends of early and mid-19th century

• A. Greatly increased power of hacendados and other large landowners 
• B. No longer restricted by Crown, these elites could more easily acquire Indian land
• C. Consequences of ever-larger estates
  • 1. rise in prices of basic foodstuffs
  • 2. weakening of central authority
  • 3. Increased disparity between rich and poor
• D. In the latter 19th-century, Liberals/Positivists will begin to reassert themselves and take power

• A.  Liberalism in late 19th accepted economics over all other considerations
• B. Would pursue goals of economic growth above all
• C. But economic growth did not benefit all equally
  • 1. Enclave economies
    • a. Liberal governments gave tax incentives and other incentives to get foreign investment
    • b. Foreign mining firms and railroads paid little or no tax
    • c. Also paid very low wages, or paid in scrip that could only be used in company stores
    • d. Thus frequently contributed little to local economies, even though national economy grew
  • 2. Foreign firms rarely gave best jobs to locals or paid locals at same rate as foreign workers 

• A. Liberals generally saw Latin America as backwards, medieval, an unprepared for the modern world
• B. Sought to economic development, and to weaken power of church in order to modernize

• A. Corporate and communal lands seen as static wealth that needed to be released to prime the economy
• B. Liberals wanted to free up this land for capitalist development to raise money for industrialization
• C. Attacks on Amerindian and communal lands
  • 1. Seen as economically backwards
  • 2. Increasingly stripped Amerindians of land, though not always intentionally
    • a. communal lands would be broken up, Indians given individual deeds
    • b. but often Indians did not have capital to develop land
    • c. would borrow money or supplies
    • d. would often have to sell land to large landowners to raise cash
• D. In some countries, like Mexico, Church lands taken for same reasons
• E. But usually only the rich could afford to buy and develop land, so large landownings grew
• F. In Argentina, Indian land taken in wars distributed to soldiers
  • a. Government wanted to create small farmers
  • b. But most soldiers lacked capital to develop land
  • c. So they sold it to rich developers

• A. Liberal land laws increased concentrations of land
• B. Those attuned to new ideas were able to amass fortunes
• C. Gaps open with those who aren’t
• D. Much regional variations to this pattern
  • 1. Mountainous, isolated areas mostly left alone
  • 2. Some regions already had better sense of private property, like Oaxaca in Mexico
  • 3. In these areas, residents did better
  • 4. Some Amerindian communities re-organized themselves as co-ops
  • 5. In agriculturally vital regions with export crops, Amerindians lost most of their land
  • 6. In the countryside, produced economic growth, but social failure
  • 7. Many forced off land became part of a transient labor force 
  • 8. Landless Amerindians became potential soldiers for conservative reactionaries

• A. Many Liberal governments sought to reform urban life
• B. But these reforms were mainly geared towards controlling the poor "for their own good"
• C. See the article Donna Guy, "Emilio and Gabriela Coni" for an example of this
• D. Another example - Mexican urban reforms
  • A. Written signs replaced picture signs
  • B. Streets names and numbers reformed, posted
  • C. A problem for the illiterate, as Liberals did little for education
  • D. Sidewalks reserved for “decent” people
  • E. Indoor toilets (no call of nature on the streets)
  • F. Loss of Church wealth had serious impact in its ability to provide social services

VII. Positivism

• A. Became guiding philosophy of in later 19th century of elites in Brazil, Mexico, and elsewhere
• B. A reaction against problems of political and economic development in mid-19th century
• C. Created an alliance between government, economic elites, and technocrats

• A. Based on thinking of Auguste Comte
  • 1. Auguste Comte - French philosopher
  • 2. Born 1789, witnessed turmoil of France after Revolution
  • 3. Sought to bring order to society
  • 4. Trained as engineer
  • 5. Believed in evolutionary Stages of History
  • 6. Last stage - Utopia
    • a. technocratic, non-political elite would regulate society
    • b. under benevolent guidance of director
• B. Appeal to elites
  • 1. Fused order and progress
  • 2. Demanded directive control of elite and a state geared towards progress
  • 3. This appealed to both Liberals and Conservatives
  • 4. In Brazil, appealed to military that sought to modernize

• A. In Brazil, becomes dominant philosophy in military schools
• B. Mexico, the National Preparatory School (1867) creates a whole generation of positivists
• C. Defeat of monarchists, Church, Conservatives in late 19th century allows positivists to come to power
• D. Unique features of Latin American Positivism - Distinctions from Comte
  • 1. Comte had proposed a new religion of humanity.
  • 2. Latin Americans sought one based on rational logic.
  • 3. Comte's slogan of Love, Order, and Progress
  • 4. Latin Americans slogan was Liberty, Order, Progress.
  • 5. This emphasized fusion of Liberal individuality and orderly scientific progress.
  • 6. Positivists believed order would make progress possible, and progress would make order possible
• E. Other influences
  • 1. Social Darwinism became important in Latin American Positivism.
  • 2. Strong belief that law could be used to rationally control society.

• A. Developmental thrust of positivism appealed to middle and professional classes.
• B. Positivism called for wide respect for trained professionals.
• C. Government came to favor education, which expanded this class.
• D. But focus was on elite schools, not a broad-based education for all.
• E. Positivists (and late 19th-century Liberals) believed poor could be reformed through law, science

XI. The Porfiriato in Mexico - An Example of a Positivist Government and of 19th-century Modernization 

• A. Porfirio Diaz - ruled Mexico 1876-1910
• B. Created a positivist government based on alliance between army, landed elites, and cientificos
• C. Cientificos - technocrats: government officials with technical training and positivist beliefs
• D. Achievements
• 1. Technological progress
  • a. built railway network 15,500 miles - seen as magic talisman for progress
  • b. electricity, telephone, telegraph, international banking
  • c. copied the Capitalist West
• 2. Winners
  • a. raw material exporters
  • b. big merchant importers
  • c. bankers
  • d. infant middle class (within limits)
  • e. ensured loyalty of Army by giving access to public trough to officers
  • f. proclaimed policy of conciliation with Church
• E. Nature of Growth
• 1. Importance of foreign investment
  • a. Half of foreign investment American
  • b. 75% of trade went to USA
  • c. 60% of exports went there
  • d. But this more involved the North - Diaz distrusted USA
• 2. Railroad had unintended consequences 
  • a. drove price of land
  • b. concentrated land more
  • c. allowed debt peons to escape
  • d. encouraged migration to prosperous regions
  • e. speculation produced enormous graft
  • f. railroad control in foreign hands - best jobs, better pay
  • g. railroads encouraged modern agriculture, which led to more exploitation
• 3. Industrialization
  • a. large numbers of factories built
  • b. staffed and financed by foreigner
  • c. economy of scale produced high prices
• 4. Working Class
  • a. 800,000 workers
  • b.16-18 hour days
  • c. many deductions from wages
  • d. no worker protections
  • e. Many made less than a dollar a week
  • f. appalling living conditions led to a mortality rate twice that of USA
  • g. economic problems 1900-1910 squeezed them out
  • h. salaries did not change while food doubled
  • i. These people did not share positivist values
• 5. Middle Class
  • a. middle class some 8-10% of population
  • b. middle class aped the style of the rich
  • c. overspent
  • d. hodpodge not culturally unified
  • e. growing middle class could not find jobs - eked out living as teachers, etc
  • f. Greatly resented that select few enjoyed political spoils
  • g. very little turnover in offices
• 6. Advent of industry brought new values
  • a. cyclical markets caused a number of disruptions
  • b. ironically, most advanced regions became most troubled
  • c. Sonora richest state, from USA financed mining, but had little political power
• F. Land
  • 1. 95% of rural population had none
  • 2. Only 10% of Indian communities still had land
  • 3. 1000 families owned most of Mexico
  • 4. 1/4 owned by foreigner, 1/4 by 200 families
  • 5. Huge pressure form great majority of population, which was landless peasants
• G. Race
  • 1. 8.7 million became 15 million during Pofiriato
  • 2. 20% white, 43%mestizo, 37% Indian
  • 3. But white positivist technocrats, foreigners, army, held most of power

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